Foreword xix -- Preface xxi -- About the Author xxiii -- 1 ARC FLASH HAZARDS AND THEIR ANALYSES 1 -- 1.1 Electrical Arcs 2 -- 1.2 Arc Flash Hazard and Personal Safety 4 -- 1.3 Time Motion Studies 5 -- 1.4 Arc Flash Hazards 6 -- 1.5 Arc Blast 6 -- 1.6 Electrical Shock Hazard 9 -- 1.7 Fire Hazard 14 -- 1.8 Arc Flash Hazard Analysis 15 -- 1.9 Personal Protective Equipment 23 -- 1.10 Hazard Boundaries 24 -- 1.11 Maximum Duration of an Arc Flash Event and Arc Flash Boundary 26 -- 1.12 Reasons for Internal Arcing Faults 29 -- 1.13 Arc Flash Hazard Calculation Steps 30 -- 1.14 Examples of Calculations 32 -- 1.15 Reducing Arc Flash Hazard 36 -- 2 SAFETY AND PREVENTION THROUGH DESIGN: A NEW FRONTIER 40 -- 2.1 Electrical Standards and Codes 41 -- 2.2 Prevention through Design 43 -- 2.3 Limitations of Existing Codes, Regulations, and Standards 44 -- 2.4 Electrical Hazards 45 -- 2.5 Changing the Safety Culture 48 -- 2.6 Risk Analysis for Critical Operation Power Systems 48 -- 2.7 Reliability Analysis 50 -- 2.8 Maintenance and Operation 53 -- 2.9 Safety Integrity Level and Safety Instrumented System 55 -- 3 CRITIQUE OF IEEE GUIDE 1584 ARC FLASH CALCULATIONS 60 -- 3.1 Variations of Arcing Currents 60 -- 3.2 Gap between Electrodes 62 -- 3.3 Variations of Incident Energy 64 -- 3.4 Some Anomalies in IEEE Equations 64 -- 3.5 Lee's Arc Model 66 -- 3.6 IEEE Experimental Model Setup 68 -- 3.7 Electrical Arc Burn Hazard 70 -- 3.8 Effect of Insulating Barriers 72 -- 3.9 Arc Flash Test Models 76 -- 3.10 Alternate Equations 77 -- 3.11 Further Testing and Research 78 -- 3.12 Effectiveness of PPE Calculated Based on IEEE 1584 Guide 79 -- 4 ARC FLASH HAZARD AND SYSTEM GROUNDING 82 -- 4.1 System and Equipment Grounding 82 -- 4.2 Low Resistance Grounding 87 -- 4.3 High Resistance Grounded Systems 87 -- 4.4 Ungrounded Systems 94 -- 4.5 Reactance Grounding 95 -- 4.6 Resonant Grounding 95 -- 4.7 Corner of Delta-Grounded Systems 95 -- 4.8 Surge Arresters 96 -- 4.9 Artifi cially Derived Neutrals 97.

4.10 Multiple Grounded Systems 100 -- 4.11 Arc Flash Hazard in Solidly Grounded Systems 100 -- 4.12 Protection and Coordination in Solidly Grounded Systems 105 -- 4.13 Ground Fault Coordination in Low Resistance Grounded Medium Voltage Systems 114 -- 4.14 Monitoring of Grounding Resistors 123 -- 4.15 Selection of Grounding Systems 124 -- 5 SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO ANSI/IEEE STANDARDS FOR ARC FLASH ANALYSIS 128 -- 5.1 Types of Calculations 129 -- 5.2 Rating Structure of HV Circuit Breakers 130 -- 5.3 Low-Voltage Motors 133 -- 5.4 Rotating Machine Model 134 -- 5.5 Calculation Methods 134 -- 5.6 Network Reduction 138 -- 5.7 Calculation Procedure 138 -- 5.8 Capacitor and Static Converter Contributions to Short-Circuit Currents 141 -- 5.9 Typical Computer-Based Calculation Results 141 -- 5.10 Examples of Calculations 144 -- 5.11 Thirty-Cycle Short-Circuit Currents 159 -- 5.12 Unsymmetrical Short-Circuit Currents 160 -- 5.13 Computer Methods 169 -- 6 ACCOUNTING FOR DECAYING SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS IN ARC FLASH CALCULATIONS 176 -- 6.1 Short Circuit of a Passive Element 176 -- 6.2 Systems with No AC Decay 179 -- 6.3 Reactances of a Synchronous Machine 180 -- 6.4 Saturation of Reactances 182 -- 6.5 Time Constants of Synchronous Machines 182 -- 6.6 Synchronous Machine Behavior on Terminal Short Circuit 183 -- 6.7 Short Circuit of Synchronous Motors and Condensers 192 -- 6.8 Short Circuit of Induction Motors 192 -- 6.9 A New Algorithm for Arc Flash Calculations with Decaying Short-Circuit Currents 195 -- 7 PROTECTIVE RELAYING 203 -- 7.1 Protection and Coordination from Arc Flash Considerations 203 -- 7.2 Classifi cation of Relay Types 207 -- 7.3 Design Criteria of Protective Systems 207 -- 7.4 Overcurrent Protection 209 -- 7.5 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers 216 -- 7.6 Short-Circuit Ratings of Low Voltage Circuit Breakers 228 -- 7.7 Series-Connected Ratings 233 -- 7.8 Fuses 234 -- 7.9 Application of Fuses for Arc Flash Reduction 239 -- 7.10 Conductor Protection 244.

7.11 Motor Protection 250 -- 7.12 Generator 51-V Protection 259 -- 8 UNIT PROTECTION SYSTEMS 266 -- 8.1 Overlapping the Zones of Protection 268 -- 8.2 Importance of Differential Systems for Arc Flash Reduction 270 -- 8.3 Bus Differential Schemes 272 -- 8.4 High Impedance Differential Relays 276 -- 8.5 Low Impedance Current Differential Relays 280 -- 8.6 Electromechanical Transformer Differential Relays 285 -- 8.7 Microprocessor-Based Transformer Differential Relays 288 -- 8.8 Pilot Wire Protection 295 -- 8.9 Modern Line Current Differential Protection 296 -- 8.10 Examples of Arc Flash Reduction with Differential Relays 301 -- 9 ARC FAULT DETECTION RELAYS 306 -- 9.1 Principle of Operation 307 -- 9.2 Light Intensity 307 -- 9.3 Light Sensor Types 308 -- 9.4 Other Hardware 313 -- 9.5 Selective Tripping 314 -- 9.6 Supervision with Current Elements 316 -- 9.7 Applications 316 -- 9.8 Examples of Calculation 318 -- 9.9 Arc Vault Protection for Low Voltage Systems 318 -- 10 OVERCURRENT COORDINATION 326 -- 10.1 Standards and Requirements 327 -- 10.2 Data for the Coordination Study 327 -- 10.3 Computer-Based Coordination 329 -- 10.4 Initial Analysis 329 -- 10.5 Coordinating Time Interval 330 -- 10.6 Fundamental Considerations for Coordination 330 -- 10.7 Coordination on Instantaneous Basis 332 -- 10.8 NEC Requirements of Selectivity 343 -- 10.9 Energy Boundary Curves 346 -- 10.10 The Art of Compromise 353 -- 11 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 365 -- 11.1 NEC Requirements 365 -- 11.2 Arc Flash Considerations 367 -- 11.3 System Confi gurations of Transformer Connections 368 -- 11.4 Through Fault Current Withstand Capability 373 -- 11.5 Constructing the Through Fault Curve Analytically 381 -- 11.6 Transformer Primary Fuse Protection 382 -- 11.7 Overcurrent Relays for Transformer Primary Protection 384 -- 11.8 Listing Requirements 386 -- 11.9 Effect of Transformer Winding Connections 390 -- 11.10 Requirements of Ground Fault Protection 392 -- 11.11 Through Fault Protection 392 -- 11.12 Overall Transformer Protection 394.

11.13 A Practical Study for Arc Flash Reduction 395 -- 12 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS 413 -- 12.1 Accuracy Classification of CTs 414 -- 12.2 Constructional Features of CTs 416 -- 12.3 Secondary Terminal Voltage Rating 418 -- 12.4 CT Ratio and Phase Angle Errors 419 -- 12.5 Interrelation of CT Ratio and C Class Accuracy 422 -- 12.6 Polarity of Instrument Transformers 424 -- 12.7 Application Considerations 425 -- 12.8 Series and Parallel Connections of CTs 432 -- 12.9 Transient Performance of the CTs 432 -- 12.10 Practicality of Application 435 -- 12.11 CTs for Low Resistance-Grounded Medium Voltage Systems 437 -- 12.12 Future Directions 437 -- 13 ARC-RESISTANT EQUIPMENT 442 -- 13.1 Calculations of Arc Flash Hazard in Arc-Resistant Equipment 443 -- 13.2 Qualifi cations in IEEE Guide 444 -- 13.3 Accessibility Types 445 -- 13.4 IEC Accessibility Types 446 -- 13.5 Arc-Resistant Ratings 447 -- 13.6 Testing According to IEEE Guide 451 -- 13.7 Pressure Relief 453 -- 13.8 Venting and Plenums 455 -- 13.9 Cable Entries 457 -- 14 RECENT TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS 461 -- 14.1 Statistical Data of Arc Flash Hazards 461 -- 14.2 Zone-Selective Interlocking 463 -- 14.3 Microprocessor-Based Low Voltage Switchgear 473 -- 14.4 Low Voltage Motor Control Centers 477 -- 14.5 Maintenance Mode Switch 485 -- 14.6 Infrared Windows and Sight Glasses 487 -- 14.7 Fault Current Limiters 490 -- 14.8 Partial Discharge Measurements 494 -- 15 ARC FLASH HAZARD CALCULATIONS IN DC SYSTEMS 503 -- 15.1 Calculations of the Short-Circuit Currents in DC Systems 504 -- 15.2 Sources of DC Short-Circuit Currents 504 -- 15.3 IEC Calculation Procedures 505 -- 15.4 Short Circuit of a Lead Acid Battery 508 -- 15.5 Short Circuit of DC Motors and Generators 512 -- 15.6 Short-Circuit Current of a Rectifier 517 -- 15.7 Short Circuit of a Charged Capacitor 522 -- 15.8 Total Short-Circuit Current 523 -- 15.9 DC Circuit Breakers and Fuses 524 -- 15.10 Arcing in DC Systems 527 -- 15.11 Equations for Calculation of Incident Energy in DC Systems 532.

15.12 Protection of the Semiconductor Devices 534 -- 16 APPLICATION OF ETHERNET AND IEC 61850 COMMUNICATIONS 540 -- 16.1 IEC 61850 Protocol 541 -- 16.2 Modern IEDs 542 -- 16.3 Substation Architecture 543 -- 16.4 IEC 61850 Communication Structure 544 -- 16.5 Logical Nodes 546 -- 16.6 Ethernet Connection 546 -- 16.7 Networking Media 550 -- 16.8 Network Topologies 552 -- 16.9 Application to Arc Flash Relaying and Communications 556 -- Review Questions 556 -- References 556 -- Appendix A Statistics and Probability Applied to Electrical Engineering 558 -- A.1 Mean Mode and Median 558 -- A.2 Mean and Standard Deviation 559 -- A.3 Skewness and Kurtosis 560 -- A.4 Normal or Gaussian Distribution 561 -- A.5 Curve Fitting: Least Square Line 563 -- References 566 -- Appendix B Tables for Quick Estimation of Incident Energy and PPE in Electrical Systems 567 -- Index 605.