LIST OF FIGURES xv -- LIST OF TABLES xvii -- PREFACE xix -- ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi -- 1 INTRODUCTION 1 -- To Begin 2 -- The Risk Communication Process 5 -- Audiences, Situations, and Purposes 6 -- References 7 -- PART I UNDERSTANDING RISK COMMUNICATION -- 2 APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATING RISK 11 -- Communication Process Approach 12 -- National Research Council's Approach 12 -- Mental Models Approach 13 -- Crisis Communication Approach 14 -- Convergence Communication Approach 15 -- Three-Challenge Approach 15 -- Social Constructionist Approach 16 -- Hazard Plus Outrage Approach 17 -- Mental Noise Approach 17 -- Social Network Contagion Approach 18 -- Social Amplifi cation of Risk Approach 18 -- Social Trust Approach 19 -- Evolutionary Theory Approach 20 -- Extended Parallel Process Model Approach 20 -- Summary 21 -- References 21 -- Additional Resources 22 -- 3 LAWS THAT MANDATE RISK COMMUNICATION 23 -- Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 24 -- Executive Order 12898, Environmental Justice in Minority Populations 25 -- Executive Order 13045, Reduce Environmental Health and Safety Risks to Children 26 -- Food and Drug Administration Regulations on Prescription Drug Communication 28 -- National Environmental Policy Act 28 -- Natural Resource Damage Assessment 30 -- Occupational Safety and Health Act 30 -- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 32 -- Risk Management Program Rule 32 -- Privacy Rule 32 -- Other Government Inducements 33 -- International Standards 33 -- North American Standards 34 -- Grants 34 -- Summary 35 -- References 35 -- Additional Resources 35 -- 4 CONSTRAINTS TO EFFECTIVE RISK COMMUNICATION 37 -- Constraints on the Communicator 37 -- Organizational Constraints 38 -- Emotional Constraints 44 -- Constraints from the Audience 45 -- Hostility and Outrage 45 -- Panic and Denial 48 -- Apathy 48 -- Mistrust of Risk Assessment 49 -- Disagreements on the Acceptable Magnitude of Risk 50 -- Lack of Faith in Science and Institutions 50.

Learning Difficulties 51 -- Constraints for Both Communicator and Audience 51 -- Stigma 52 -- Stability of the Knowledge Base 52 -- Summary 53 -- References 53 -- Additional Resources 55 -- 5 ETHICAL ISSUES 57 -- Social Ethics 58 -- The Sociopolitical Environment's Influence 58 -- The Use of the Risk Idiom 60 -- Fairness of the Risk 61 -- Consequences of Multiple Meanings 62 -- The Issue of Stigma 63 -- Organizational Ethics 63 -- Legitimacy of Representation 64 -- Designation of Primary Audience 65 -- Releasing Information 66 -- Attitude toward Compliance with Regulations 67 -- Personal Ethics 68 -- Using Persuasion 68 -- The Role of the Communicator 68 -- Organizational Ethics or Personal Ethics? 69 -- Summary 69 -- References 69 -- Additional Resources 70 -- 6 PRINCIPLES OF RISK COMMUNICATION 71 -- Principles of Process 72 -- Know Your Communication Limits and Purpose 72 -- Whenever Possible, Pretest Your Message 73 -- Communicate Early, Often, and Fully 73 -- Remember That Perception Is Reality 74 -- Principles of Presentation 74 -- Know Your Audience 75 -- Do Not Limit Yourself to One Form or One Method 75 -- Simplify Language and Presentation, Not Content 75 -- Be Objective, Not Subjective 75 -- Communicate Honestly, Clearly, and Compassionately 76 -- Listen and Deal with Specifi c Concerns 76 -- Convey the Same Information to All Segments of Your Audience 77 -- Deal with Uncertainty 77 -- Principles for Comparing Risks 78 -- Use Analogies, but Do Not Trivialize 78 -- Use Ranges 79 -- Compare with Standards 79 -- Compare with Other Estimates of the Same Risk 80 -- Compare Traits 80 -- Do Not Compare Risks with Different Levels of Associated Outrage 80 -- Explain Reductions in Magnitude 81 -- Summary 81 -- References 81 -- Additional Resources 82 -- PART II PLANNING THE RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORT -- 7 DETERMINE PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES 85 -- Factors That Influence Purpose and Objectives 86 -- Legal Issues 86 -- Organizational Requirements 86 -- The Risk Itself 87.

Audience Requirements 88 -- Checklist for Determining Purpose and Objectives 89 -- Reference 90 -- Additional Resources 90 -- 8 ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE 91 -- Begin with Purpose and Objectives 92 -- Choose a Level of Analysis 93 -- Determine Key Audience Characteristics 95 -- Determine How to Find Audience Analysis Information 95 -- Incorporate Audience Analysis Information into Risk Communication Efforts 101 -- Checklist for Analyzing Your Audience 103 -- References 103 -- Additional Resources 104 -- 9 DEVELOP YOUR MESSAGE 105 -- Common Pitfalls 106 -- Information People Want 107 -- Mental Models 108 -- Message Mapping and Message Development Templates 111 -- Health Risk Communication 111 -- Crisis Communication 114 -- Checklist for Developing Messages 115 -- References 115 -- Additional Resource 116 -- 10 DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE METHODS 117 -- Information Materials 117 -- Visual Representation of Risk 118 -- Face-to-Face Communication 120 -- Working with the News Media 121 -- Stakeholder Participation 122 -- Technology-Assisted Communication 123 -- Social Media 125 -- Checklist for Determining Appropriate Methods 126 -- Additional Resources 127 -- 11 SET A SCHEDULE 129 -- Legal Requirements 129 -- Organizational Requirements 130 -- The Scientific Process 130 -- Ongoing Activities 131 -- Audience Needs 131 -- Reference 132 -- Checklist for Setting Schedules 133 -- 12 DEVELOP A COMMUNICATION PLAN 135 -- What to Include in a Communication Plan 136 -- Developing Risk Communication Strategies 138 -- Storyboarding as a Planning Tool 138 -- Communication Planning Using the Comprehensive Environmental -- Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Approach 139 -- Using an Audience Focus 140 -- Strategic Planning for Risk Communication 142 -- Checklist for Developing a Communication Plan 143 -- References 143 -- Additional Resources 143 -- PART III PUTTING RISK COMMUNICATION INTO ACTION -- 13 INFORMATION MATERIALS 147 -- Constructing Information Materials 147 -- Information to Be Included 147.

Organizing Material for Information Materials 150 -- Language for Information Materials 150 -- Narrative Style in Information Materials 152 -- Guidelines for Specifi c Types of Information Materials 153 -- Newsletters 153 -- Pamphlets, Booklets, and Fact Sheets 154 -- Posters, Advertisements, and Displays 154 -- Articles 155 -- Technical Reports 156 -- Checklist for Information Materials 157 -- References 158 -- Additional Resources 158 -- 14 VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF RISKS 159 -- Design Visuals for Specifi c Audiences and Uses 160 -- Match the Visual Portrayal to the Information to be Conveyed 162 -- Pretest Graphics with Those Who Will Use Them 164 -- Using Visuals to Personalize Risk Information 166 -- Comparing Risks in Visual Formats 167 -- Static versus Interactive Visuals 170 -- Depicting Probability and Uncertainty 172 -- Presenting Probability 172 -- Presenting Uncertainty 176 -- Probability plus Uncertainty 177 -- Warning Labels 180 -- Consider Using Action Levels 183 -- Ethical Portrayal of Risk Information 183 -- Using Visual Information in Group Decision Making 187 -- Checklist for Visual Representation of Risk 188 -- References 188 -- Additional Resources 190 -- 15 FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION 193 -- Constructing Face-to-Face Messages 194 -- Choose the Appropriate Spokesperson 194 -- Give the Audience Something to Take Away 197 -- Reinforce Your Message with Visual Aids 197 -- Speak in the Language of the Audience 197 -- Do Not Promise What You Cannot Deliver 197 -- Guidelines for Specifi c Types of Face-to-Face Communication 198 -- Speaking Engagements 198 -- Speakers Bureaus 199 -- Tours and Demonstrations 200 -- Video Presentations 201 -- Audience Interviews 203 -- Information Fairs 203 -- Training 204 -- Checklist for Face-to-Face Communication 205 -- References 206 -- Additional Resource 206 -- 16 WORKING WITH THE NEWS MEDIA 207 -- The Roles of the News Media in Risk Communication 207 -- News Media Contrasted with Other Stakeholders 209 -- Productive Interaction, Not Polarization 209.

Understanding “Cultural” Differences 210 -- The News Media Are Event Focused 211 -- Certain Kinds of Risks Get More Coverage 211 -- Journalistic Independence and Deadlines Affect Content 211 -- The Need for Balance Invites Opposing Views 212 -- Information Is Condensed, Simplified, and Personalized 212 -- Guidelines for Interacting with the News Media 213 -- Develop Relationships with Local and Regional News Media Representatives 213 -- Know When to Approach Media Representatives or When They May Approach You 214 -- Prepare Messages and Materials Carefully 214 -- Know Where to Draw the Line 216 -- Put Your Message in Terms That the Reporter's Audience Can Understand 216 -- Put the Risk in Perspective 217 -- Respect the Reporter's Deadlines 218 -- Maintain Ethical Standards of Disclosure 218 -- Take Action When Inaccurate or Misleading Material Is Published or Aired 219 -- Evaluate News Media Coverage 219 -- Using Technology 220 -- Distribution Services 220 -- Video and Audio News Releases 221 -- Public Service Announcements 221 -- Telebriefings 222 -- Social Media 223 -- Checklist for Working with the News Media 223 -- References 224 -- Additional Resources 225 -- 17 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION 227 -- Requirements for Stakeholder Participation 228 -- Organizational Requirements for Successful Stakeholder Participation 228 -- Stakeholder Requirements for Successful Participation 229 -- Guidelines for Specific Types of Stakeholder Participation Activities 230 -- The Formal Hearing 231 -- Group Interactions 232 -- Interactions Involving Risk Assessment 237 -- Interactions Involving Decision Making 238 -- Interactions Involving Risk Management 243 -- Evaluating Stakeholder Participation Based on Your Situation 245 -- Checklist for Stakeholder Participation 246 -- References 248 -- Additional Resources 249 -- 18 TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED COMMUNICATION 251 -- Choosing Technology-Based Applications 252 -- Workplace Risk Communication 253 -- Computer-Based Training 253 -- Informing Employees about Risks 255.

Web-Delivered and Stand-Alone Multimedia Programs 257 -- Online Multimedia Tools 258 -- Mobile Platforms 259 -- Web and Satellite Broadcasts 260 -- Traditional Electronic Forums 262 -- Interactive Multimedia Programs in Public Places 263 -- Technology in Care Communication 265 -- Technology in Consensus Communication 269 -- Websites 269 -- Local Area Networks, Extranets, and Bulletin Boards 270 -- Tracking and Analyzing Comments and Responses 271 -- Facilitating Group Decision Making 272 -- Technology in Crisis Communication 273 -- Websites, Wired, and Wireless Technologies 273 -- Emergency Planning and Training Tools 274 -- Checklist for Technology-Assisted Communication 278 -- References 278 -- Additional Resources 279 -- 19 SOCIAL MEDIA 281 -- General Principles on Participating in Social Media to Communicate Risk 282 -- Determining Audience for Social Media 283 -- Organizational Barriers to Social Media Adoption 284 -- Sharing Content via Social Media 287 -- Engaging with Stakeholders 288 -- Monitoring Changes in Perception via Social Media 289 -- Guidelines for Specific Types of Social Media 290 -- Social Networking Sites 290 -- Microblogging 292 -- Blogging and Podcasts 293 -- Video-, Image-, and File-Sharing Sites 294 -- Mapping 294 -- Mobile Phones 295 -- Evaluating Social Media Effectiveness 295 -- Checklist for Social Media 296 -- References 296 -- Additional Resources 297 -- PART IV EVALUATING RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS -- 20 EVALUATION OF RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS 301 -- Why Evaluate Risk Communication Efforts? 301 -- The Meaning of Success 302 -- Types of Evaluations 304 -- Conducting the Evaluation 306 -- Checklist for Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts 308 -- References 309 -- Additional Resources 310 -- PART V SPECIAL CASES IN RISK COMMUNICATION -- 21 EMERGENCY RISK COMMUNICATION 313 -- Understanding Emergency Risk Communication 314 -- Emotions and Public Actions 315 -- Credibility and Trust 316 -- Planning for the Unexpected 318 -- Preparing Your Organization 318.

Teaming with Other Organizations 322 -- Working with Communities in Advance 323 -- Determining Appropriate Communication Methods 324 -- Developing an Emergency Risk Communication Plan 328 -- Communicating during an Emergency 333 -- Emergency Operation Centers 336 -- Working with the Media in an Emergency 337 -- Hotlines 340 -- Communicating after an Emergency 342 -- Checklist for Emergency Risk Communication 344 -- References 345 -- Additional Resources 348 -- 22 INTERNATIONAL RISK COMMUNICATION 349 -- Recognize the Similarities 350 -- Account for Cultural Differences 350 -- Look for “Your” Risk in Other Countries 352 -- Plan for Cross-Country Communication 353 -- Checklist for International Risk Communication 355 -- References 356 -- Additional Resources 357 -- 23 PUBLIC HEALTH CAMPAIGNS 359 -- Understand Your Goals 360 -- Use Research to Design Campaigns 360 -- Use Multiple Methods to Reach People 361 -- News Media 361 -- Paid Placements and Independent Coverage 362 -- Online Interventions and Social Media 363 -- Other Methods 364 -- Evaluate Success 364 -- Checklist for Public Health Campaigns 366 -- References 366 -- Additional Resources 367 -- RESOURCES 369 -- General Risk Communication Resources 369 -- Environmental Risk Communication Resources 370 -- Safety Risk Communication Resources 371 -- Health Risk Communication Resources 371 -- Care Communication Resources 372 -- Consensus Communication Resources 372 -- Crisis Communication Resources 373 -- GLOSSARY 375 -- INDEX 379.